Was Nok Culture Sub-Saharan Africas earliest civilization

Nok Culture spanned the end of the Neolithic (Stone Age) and start of the Iron Age in sub-Saharan Africa, and may be the oldest organized society in sub-Saharan Africa; current research suggests it predated the founding of Rome by some 500 years. Nok was a complex society with permanent settlements and centers for farming and manufacturing, but we are still left guessing who the Nok were, how their culture developed, or what happened to it. The Discovery of Nok Culture In 1943, clay shards and a terracotta head were discovered during tin mining operations on the southern and western slopes of the Jos Plateau in Nigeria. The pieces were taken to archaeologist Bernard Fagg, who immediately suspected their importance.  He began collecting pieces and excavating, and when he dated the pieces using new techniques, discovered what colonial ideologies said wasnt possible: an ancient West African society dating back to at least 500 B.C.E. Fagg named this culture Nok, the name of the village near to which the first discovery was made. Fagg continued his studies, and subsequent research at two important sites, Taruga and Samun  Dukiya, provided more accurate information on Nok culture. More of Noks terracotta sculptures, domestic pottery, stone axes and other tools, and iron implements were discovered, but due to the colonial dismissal of ancient African societies, and, later, the problems facing the newly independent Nigeria, the region remained understudied. Looting carried out on behalf of Western collectors, compounded the difficulties entailed in learning about Nok culture. A Complex Society It was not until the 21st century that sustained, systematic research was carried out on Nok culture, and the results have been stunning.  The most recent finds, dated by thermo-luminescence testing and radio-carbon dating, indicate that Nok culture lasted from around 1200 B.C.E. to 400 C.E., yet we still do not know how it arose or what happened to it. The sheer volume, as well as artistic and technical skills seen in the terracotta sculptures, suggests that Nok culture was a complex society. This is further supported by the existence of iron working (a demanding skill carried out by experts whose other needs like food and clothing must be met by others), and archaeological digs have shown that the Nok had sedentary farming. Some experts have argued that the uniformity of the terracotta - which suggests a single source of the clay - is evidence of a centralized state, but it could also be evidence of a complex guild structure. Guilds imply a hierarchical society, but not necessarily an organized state. An Iron Age Without Copper By about 4-500 BCE, the Nok were also smelting iron and making iron tools.  Archaeologists disagree whether this was an independent development (methods of smelting may have derived from the use of kilns for firing terracotta) or whether the skill was brought south across the Sahara. The mixture of stone and iron tools found at some sites supports the theory that West African societies skipped the copper age. In parts of Europe, the Copper Age lasted for nearly a millennia, but in West Africa, societies seem to have transitioned from the Neolithic stone age straight into the Iron Age, possibly led by the Nok. The terracottas of Nok culture demonstrate the complexity of life and society in West Africa in ancient times, but what happened next? It is suggested that the Nok eventually evolved into the later Yoruba kingdom of Ife. The brass and terracotta sculptures of the Ife and Benin cultures show significant similarities with those found at Nok, but what happened artistically in the 700 years between the end of Nok and the rise of Ife is still a mystery. Revised by Angela Thompsell

The Manhattan Project Essay - 901 Words

The world was shocked when the United States dropped two atomic bombs on Japan in 1945. The bombs were a result of years of research and testing completed by the nation’s top physicists in a top-secret project called the Manhattan Project. The Manhattan Project was a crucial development by the United States because it quickly ended the war with Japan. In August 1939, Albert Einstein and Leo Szilard drafted the Einstein-Szilard letter to send to President Roosevelt. The letter outlined the need for the United States to stockpile uranium ore and start the development of an atomic bomb. The letter also warned Roosevelt that Nazi scientists were developing a similar program. President Roosevelt created a project to study uranium and†¦show more content†¦They sent their own physicists to work as spies on the Manhattan Project. The most important information they obtained was the technique that the Americans used to refine Uranium into a usable energy source. It is estimated that the Soviet spying program saved the Soviet Union 1 to 2 years of development on their atomic bomb. After the project was completed and the atomic bomb was ready for use, a group of 155 scientists who worked on the project signed a petition urging the president to not use the bomb offensively. This petition was known as the Szilard Petition, named after Leo Szilard, who created the petition. They were concerned because the original intent of the project was to build an atomic weapon before the Nazis could, and only use it in defense. The Szilard Petition infuriated Oppenheimer and Groves, and they tried everything they could to stop it, including attempting to arrest Szilard himself. In the end, they prevented the petition from being delivered to the president until after the bombs were ready to be dropped. The test location, known as Trinity Site, had been chosen a year earlier, and preparations had been taking place months before the test. People working on the project nicknamed the bomb â€Å"The Gadget† to help maintain its secrecy. On July 12, the bomb’s components were brought to Trinity Site, and assembly was started that day. The detonators were placed inside The GadgetShow MoreRelatedThe Manhattan Project1114 Words   |  5 PagesThe Manhattan Project The Manhattan Project was to see if making an atomic bomb possible. The success of this project would forever change the world forever making it known that something this powerful can be manmade. The Manhattan Project’s success was something that had an impact on everybody involved since they helped create something with so much destructive power it could destroy a city within seconds. The University of Chicago in Illinois had a huge role with the making of the atomic bombRead MoreThe Manhattan Project568 Words   |  2 Pagesneutral so it sent suicide bombers to attack our naval base in Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Thus leading into the use of the atomic bomb, but first the construction, an event referred to as the Manhattan Project. The name Manhattan Project came about because the program began under the Manhattan Engineering District of the War Department. Early 1939, the scientist of the world learned that German scientist had discovered a way to spit a uranium atom, created a bomb that was capable of the destructionRead MoreOutline Of The Manhattan Project1621 Words   |  7 Pages The Manhattan Project Jervontae Young Mr.Davis English III 16 october 2017  Outline Thesis Statement: The Manhattan Project was the American program for researching and developing the first atomic bombs because of the project it cost a lot of people their lives. Introduction Which President form the Atomic Bomb in why? The agencies leading up to the Manhattan Project were first formed in 1939 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt U.S. intelligence operatives reported that scientists workingRead MoreThe Manhattan Project : The York Project2877 Words   |  12 PagesHonors - Period 3 30 November 2014 The Manhattan Project Everyone has secrets, even the U.S. Government. The Manhattan project was one of the many secrets the Government kept from the United States until after the damage was done. What was the Manhattan Project? The manhattan project was a multi-billion dollar enterprise, 2.2 billion to be exact, that provided U.S. Military forces with the single most destructive weapon known to man; the atomic bomb. The project was to be a kept at high secrecy fromRead MoreEssay on Manhattan Project1664 Words   |  7 Pagesamp;quot;The Manhattan Projectamp;quot;. On Monday July 16th, 1945, a countdown for the detonation of the first atomic bomb took place near Los Alamos, New Mexico. This atomic bomb testing would forever change the meaning of war. As the atomic bomb was detonated it sent shock-waves all over the world. There was endless research done on the bomb in the United States. The research was called amp;quot;The Manhattan Engineer District Projectamp;quot; but it was more commonly known as qu ot;The Manhattan ProjectRead MoreThe Manhattan Project Essay545 Words   |  3 PagesThe Manhattan Project was a very important event throughout the World War II history. It began the development of the atomic bomb and other nuclear weapons that were of good help during the war. It first began with a German scientist separating the uranium atom, which made people be scared of what Hitler might be capable of. Also Hitler and his people had begun discovering new types of weapons that were useful for them in the war. Something that apparently Hitler did not quite think about, was theRead More The Manhattan Project Essay941 Words   |  4 PagesThe Atomic Bomb The research for the first Atomic bomb took place in the United States, by a group of nuclear engineers; the name of this research was called, â€Å"The Manhattan Project†. On July 16, 1945, the detonation of the first atomic bomb was tested near Los Alamos, New Mexico. As the atomic bomb was detonated, it sent shock-waves across the globe, which demonstrated that nuclear power would forever change the meaning of war. To create a nuclear bomb, nuclear fission must occur. The processRead More The Manhattan Project Essay1507 Words   |  7 PagesThe Manhattan Project The Manhattan Project was the code name of the America’s attempt to construct an atomic bomb during World War II. It was named after the Manhattan Engineer District of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, because a lot of it’s earlier research was done in New York City. An atomic bomb is a weapon that uses the energy from a nuclear reaction called Fission for its destruction. The idea that mass could be changed into energy was predicted by Albert Einstein in the earlierRead MoreEssay on The Manhattan Project1934 Words   |  8 Pages Before the Manhattan Project, in the beginning there were many advancements in understanding made in the world of physics. These resulted in the recognition of nuclear fission and its potential as an energy source and as a potential weapon. Of these advancements none was more central and important than the development of the nuclear model of the atom, which by the year of 1932 contained a nucleus containing most of the mass of an atom in the form of two particles, protons and neutrons. This nucleusRead MoreAlbert Einstein/the Manhattan Project2254 Words   |  10 Pagesand evolution of the Manhattan Project and why did Einstein’s thoughts and involvement in the Manhattan Project change throughout World War II? Albert Einstein was undoubtedly one of the geniuses of the twentieth century. His work with gravity, relativity, light, and the universe helped to herald in a golden age for the study of science, of which scientists are still marveling at and studying today. Additionally, he was well-known for his participation in the Manhattan Project and the construction

One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich Free Essays

CJ Raia August 20th 2012 Mr. Balazs AP European History One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich â€Å"One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich,† the Nobel Prize winning novel by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, describes life in a Russian gulag during the mid-20th century. The novel describes one day in the gulag through the eyes of Ivan Denisovich or â€Å"Shukhov† as he is referred to in the book. We will write a custom essay sample on One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich or any similar topic only for you Order Now It shows how Shukhov’s day begins with waking at five in the morning to negative forty degree temperatures. He then eats breakfast, which consists of â€Å"skilly,† a watery soup made of old vegetables, and moldy bread. After breakfast, he proceeds to be forcefully marched to the work field where he and his â€Å"gang† toil in the freezing cold constructing a power plant. While dressed in nothing but rags, and some felt books, Shukhov lays mortar while being buffeted by the harsh winds of the Siberian tundra. After a full 12-hour workday, he is then marched back to the gulag where he has dinner, which is again skilly, and old bread. This particular day ends up being a good day for Shukhov because he is able to get two portions for lunch and dinner, and a small pinch of tobacco. This routine is repeated every day for Shukhov’s â€Å"light† ten-year sentence. This novel gives the reader a glimpse of life in a â€Å"gulag. † It shows the reader how during Stalin’s Communist reign over the USSR, those people considered socially dangerous, disruptive, suspicious, or disloyal were thrown into labor camps to serve out there sentences. The novel gives us an idea of how harsh these camps were and how they were used to provide the communist regime with cheap labor. In addition, the book gives the reader a taste of the distrust that was circling around the USSR at the time. We see that many of the prisoners thrown in the gulag were considered spies or anti-communists. However, it is shown that the majority of these prisoners, including Shukhov, were in fact innocent. This gives us an idea of how oppressive the Communist government under Stalin was during the 1940’s. In this novel, there are many different themes. Through the character, Solzhenitsyn shows how humans can endure the most severe conditions. He shows how Shukhov and his inmates maintain their humanity through small acts and routines. Routines like, not licking empty bowls and removing one’s hat before meals. Throughout the book, the prisoners work hard to maintain their humanity and dignity. They do so despite the horrible conditions and the imprisonment. Another theme that Solzhenitsyn touches upon is the destruction of human solidarity. In the book it says, â€Å"The zek’s main enemy is another zek. † Solzhenitsyn shows us throughout the novel that the distrust and conflict between prisoners just worsens prison life. He shows how prisoners with powerful positions, such as the foreman or the cook, abuse their power and take from other prisoners. This shows how the rough life in camp and lack of necessities forces the zeks to turn against each other while imprisoned. Another theme identified in the novel was the possession of time. Since much of the prisoners day was structured and filled with work the small amounts of time in the morning, during meal times, and in the evening were precious to the zeks. They used this time to perform small jobs to earn money or go about business that would help ensure their survival. Since these small amounts of time were so precious, the zeks acted like the time was theirs and when it was taken away, they felt cheated out of something extremely valuable. The last theme identified in the novel is the importance of faith. Solzhenitsyn demonstrates how faith can help the human mind endure through and even make light of a difficult situation. The character Alyoshka, a devout Baptist, exhibits how faith can be a way of survival and happiness while stuck in the camps. At the conclusion of the novel, Shukhov experiences a sensation of inner peace, which resembles the feeling that Alyoshka experiences. This shows that religious faith gives strength in times of hardship. Overall, this novel was very helpful to me because it taught me a lot about Soviet history. It gave me insight on how brutal the Soviet gulags were. It allowed me to see what type of everyday hardships the inmates went through will imprisoned there. It also gave me insight into how severe the Soviet government was during the 1930’s and 40’s. It really taught me what labor camps were and how they deeply affected the nation’s people. The fact that this book was a novel also helped me learn about history in a more effective way. Seeing life through Shukhov’s eyes almost let me experience the harshness of the gulag. Personally, I think novels are much more helpful when it comes to learning about history because not only do they supply you with facts, but they also allow the reader to experience history through the characters. The plots in novels also help in learning about history. Unlike non-fiction, books, which are generally just dry facts, novels, supply a plot that can be exciting for the reader. It makes the reader actually concerned or excited for those characters participating in the plot line. Reading â€Å"One day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich† by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn not only was a very helpful tool in learning about Soviet Labor camps during the early-mid 20th century but also a very enjoyable read. Personally, I enjoyed the book very much due to its vivid description of the harsh life in the gulag and enthralling account of Shukhov’s actions to survive. The story of just one man’s day in such a camp and his ability to overcome the adversity not only sparked my interest but also my appreciation for people in history. This novel made me respect those who actually went through these camps and survived. It gave me a new perspective on history. Not only was this novel a fascinating story but also a very well written one. Solzhenitsyn beautifully captured the emotions of the characters throughout the book. It really gave me a sense that I was feeling the hopelessness or the drive for survival that many of the characters felt. How to cite One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, Essay examples